A photo montage of the September 11 attacks. Clockwise from top left: World Trade Center burning; Flight 175 crashes into the south tower; recovery of one of the engines from Flight 93; Pentagon crash video; fireman calls for 10 more rescue workers; Western Ring of the Pentagon.
Aug 26, 2011 More than 2,000 NYPD and Port Authority police officers secured the area, searched the Towers, and rescued survivors. But the response was, first and foremost, a Fire Department operation. In a standard single-alarm fire, a total of six units three engines, two ladders, and a battalion chief respond. Best Answer: No, the Twin Towers will not be rebuilt. The site IS being redeveloped, however, the footprints of the towers will remain as two holes in the ground as a reminder. The centerpiece of the rebuild will be One World Trade Center, which is currently under construction. When finished within the next.
During the September 11 attacks of 2001, 2,977 victims and 19 hijackers were killed and more than 6,000 others were injured.[1][2] The immediate deaths included 265 on the four planes (including the terrorists), 2,606 in the World Trade Center and in the surrounding area, and 125 at the Pentagon.[3][4] The attacks were the deadliest terrorist act in world history, and the most devastating foreign attack on United States soil since the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941.[5]
Most of those who perished were civilians except for 343 firefighters and 71 law enforcement officers who died in the World Trade Center and on the ground in New York City,[6] and another law enforcement officer who died when United Airlines Flight 93 crashed into a field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania,[7] 55 military personnel who died at the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia,[8] and the 19 terrorists who died on board the four aircraft. Overall, 2,605 U.S. citizens, including 2,135 civilians, died in the attacks, while an additional 372 non-U.S. citizens (excluding the 19 perpetrators) also perished, which represented about 12% of the total.[3] More than 90 countries lost citizens in the attacks,[9] including the United Kingdom (67 deaths), the Dominican Republic (47 deaths), and India (41 deaths).
2,974 victims were confirmed to have died in the initial attacks.[10] In 2007, the New York City medical examiner's office began to add people who died of illnesses caused by exposure to dust from the site to the official death toll. The first such victim was a woman, a civil rights lawyer, who had died from a chronic lung condition in February 2002.[11] In September 2009, the office added a man who died in October 2008,[12] and in 2011, a male accountant who had died in December 2010.[13] This raises the number of victims at the World Trade Center site to 2,753, and the overall 9/11 death toll to 2,996.[2]
As of August 2013, medical authorities concluded that 1,140 people who worked, lived, or studied in Lower Manhattan at the time of the attack have been diagnosed with cancer as a result of 'exposure to toxins at Ground Zero'.[14] It has been reported that over 1,400 9/11 rescue workers who responded to the scene in the days and months after the attacks have since died.[15] At least 11 pregnancies were lost as a result of 9/11.[16] Neither the FBI or New York City officially recorded the casualties of the 9/11 attacks in their crime statistics for 2001, with the FBI stating in a disclaimer that 'the number of deaths is so great that combining it with the traditional crime statistics will have an outlier effect that falsely skews all types of measurements in the program's analyses.'[17][18]
- 1Evacuation
- 2Survivors
- 2.1After collapses
- 3Fatalities
- 3.1World Trade Center
- 4Forensic identification
Evacuation[edit]
Most tall buildings in the United States at the time were not designed for complete evacuation during a crisis, even after the 1993 World Trade Center bombing. It was also procedural for announcements in the case of high-rise fire safety for individuals to stay in their offices unless they were near the burning floor.[19] The two World Trade Center buildings housed three stairwells in the center core of each tower, with the stairwells being 70 feet apart in the North Tower and about 200 feet apart in the South Tower. The three stairwells were labeled A, B, and C, and were as tall as the buildings with two built to 44 inches in width and the third being 56 inches wide.[20]
At the time of the attacks, media reports suggested that tens of thousands might have been killed, as on any given day upwards of 100,000 people could be inside the towers. Estimates of the number of people in the Twin Towers when attacked on Tuesday, September 11, 2001, range between 14,000 and 19,000. The National Institute of Standards and Technology estimated that approximately 17,400 civilians were in the World Trade Center complex at the time of the attacks.[21] Turnstile counts from the Port Authority indicate that the number of people typically in the Twin Towers by 10:30 am was 14,154.[22]
In interviews with 271 survivors, researchers in 2008 found that only about 8.6% had fled as soon as the alarm was raised while about 91.4% stayed behind to wait for more information or carrying out at least one additional task (collecting belongings/calling a family member). The interviews also showed that 82% of those who were evacuating stopped at least once during their way down, due to congestion on the stairs, to take a rest, or due to environmental conditions (smoke/debris/fire/water).[23]
North Tower[edit]
In the moments after Flight 11 struck the North Tower, the roughly 8,000 people on the floors below the point of impact (the 93rd to 99th floors) were faced with a harrowing scenario. The towers of the World Trade Center complex had not been designed to facilitate a mass evacuation of everybody in the buildings, and in each tower there were only three narrow stairwells descending to the ground level. Another hindrance to the evacuation of the World Trade Center was that as the planes struck, the force of the impact caused the buildings to shift enough to jam doors in their frames, and stairwells became blocked by broken wall boards,[24] trapping dozens of people throughout the building, mostly on the floors closer to the impact zone. For those that were above the point of impact, many were trapped within their offices, with one victim relaying to 911 after the first plane hit that the stairs were inaccessible for the 106th floor.[25] At least 28 people were freed on the 86th and 89th floors by members of the Port Authority office workers who had to pry open jammed doors.[24]
Many people began to evacuate via the stairs on their own, while others chose to wait for instructions from the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Others who chose to evacuate were also pushed into action by loved ones who had been able to contact them.[25] As evacuees descended the staircases in the North Tower, they were directed to descend to the concourse level beneath the World Trade Center complex, where the mall was located. Others who managed to escape credit the 'Survivors Staircase,' an outdoor staircase that survived the disaster, and World Trade Center workers who knew escape routes. A survivor stated 'Between the 11th floor and the 9th floor, we wound through this maze. When we got to the plaza level we were walking through and there was one emergency light on. There was water up to our calves. All of a sudden there was a voice. We saw someone in a miner hat. He opened the door and said 'Just keep going.'[26]
When first responders arrived at Ground Zero, and they were alerted to the fire above the 78th floor, teams were ordered to help evacuate occupants of the tower.[27] Within moments of Flight 11's impact, the Port Authority issued a complete evacuation of the North Tower.
South Tower[edit]
Meanwhile, in the South Tower, many people saw what had happened in the North Tower and chose to evacuate as a precaution. However, the major hindrance to this process was that for the 17 minutes between the impacts of Flight 11 and Flight 175, it had not yet been determined that a terrorist attack was unfolding, and as a result the Port Authority in the South Tower spread the word via the building's intercom system and security guards for workers in the South Tower to remain in their offices.[28] In a phone message to his wife by a victim who worked for AON Risk Management, part of the initial announcement can be heard stating: 'May I have your attention, please. Repeating this message: the situation occurred in Building 1. If conditions warrant on your floor, you may wish to start an orderly evacuation.'[19] A package deliverer told reporters he heard the first crash and as he evacuated he heard 'The building is secure. The safest place is inside; stay calm and do not leave.' Others who ignored the message were met with officials at the lobby who told them to return to their respective floors.[29] In a recorded radio conversation about two minutes after the first plane hit, the director of the South Tower stated 'I'm not going to do anything until we get orders from the Fire Department or somebody.'[19] This was done in order to avoid overcrowding on the plaza and concourse levels, which was feared would slow the evacuation and rescue operations in the North Tower.[30]
Despite the announcements, thousands of people continued to evacuate the South Tower. In the South Tower between the 78th Floor Sky Lobby and the Observation Deck on the 107th and 110th Floors, there were an estimated 2,000 employees, including 1,100 on the floors occupied by AON Insurance (the 92nd and the 98th through 105th). One of AON's executives, Eric Eisenberg, initiated the evacuation of their floors within moments of the impact of Flight 11.[31] Similar evacuations were carried out on the floors occupied by Fiduciary Trust, on the 90th, 94th–97th floors, as well as in the offices of Fuji Bank (on floors 79–82), CSC (floor 87)[32] and Euro Brokers on floor 84,[33] which occupied the floors directly above the 78th Floor Sky Lobby. Executives such as Eisenberg instructed their employees to take the stairs down to the 78th floor Sky Lobby, where they could take an express elevator to the ground level and exit the building.
Many were aided in their evacuation by other building occupants such as Welles Remy Crowther, who was extremely identifiable due to the red bandanna around his mouth, and who helped guide groups of evacuees to safety.[34] Within a window of roughly 17 minutes, between 8:46 AM and 9:03 AM, an estimated 1,400 people successfully evacuated the upper floors of the South Tower, while roughly 600 people did not. At the moment of the impact of Flight 175, an estimated 200 people had packed into the Sky Lobby on the 78th Floor and were waiting for the express elevators. Almost all of these people then died, as the lobby was in the lower section of Flight 175's impact zone.[34][35][36]
World Trade Center Hotel[edit]
World Trade Center 3 is also known as the World Trade Center Hotel, the Vista Hotel, and the Marriott Hotel. During evacuations of the two larger towers, the twenty-two story hotel was used as an evacuation runway for about 1,000 people who were evacuating from the area.[37] A majority of the registered 940 guests at the hotel began to evacuate after alarms were raised due to a piece of one of the plane's landing gear landing on the top floor of the pool.[37] Some did not immediately do so, with at least one guest recounting that he woke up to the first plane hitting the North Tower, and went back to bed only to be awoken by the impact of the plane hitting the South Tower. He then watched the news and took a shower, got dressed, and gathered his belongings before evacuating after watching the South Tower collapse.[38] The guests and others who were evacuated through the hotel were guided by hotel staff through the hotel's bar and outside onto Liberty Street.[39]
Surrounding area[edit]
Once both towers had been struck, the order to evacuate the North Tower quickly spread to encompass not only the entire World Trade Center complex, but most high rise buildings in Lower Manhattan and surrounding areas as well. The evacuation of employees from the North and South towers continued past the plaza and through the concourse. Evacuees from the North Tower were directed across the full length of the concourse to 5 World Trade Center, from where they exited the complex onto Church Street. Evacuees from the South Tower were provided with a separate route in order to deter congestion, with theirs leading them to 4 World Trade Center and exiting onto Liberty Street.[citation needed]
To relieve congestion within the city and clear the evacuees and civilians, boats and ferries were used to further evacuate Lower Manhattan.[40] Some of the boats were a part of the Coast Guard, others were civilian, company or state owned, that acted independently or after seeking the permission of the Coast Guard, who initially instructed vessels to stand by and then issued a request for all available boats to participate.[41]
Survivors[edit]
No one survived in or above the impact area in the North Tower.[42] There is a report of at least one survivor who had reached the 22nd floor when the tower began to collapse, and reportedly fell 15 floors and later rescued, although some find the account unreliable.[43][44]
Only 14 people escaped from the impact zone of the South Tower (floors 77 to 85) after it was struck by United Airlines Flight 175, and only four people escaped from the floors above it.[45] Individuals escaped from the South Tower as high up as the 84th floor using stairwell A in the northwest corner, the only stairwell left intact after the impact.[30] Investigators believe that stairwell A remained passable until the South Tower collapsed at 9:59 am. Because of communication difficulties between 911 operators and FDNY and NYPD responders, most of them were unaware that stairwell A was passable and instructed survivors above the impact zone to wait for assistance by rescue personnel.[42]
After collapses[edit]
After the towers collapsed, only 23 individuals in or below the towers escaped from the debris, including 15 rescue workers. The last survivor removed from the WTC collapse debris was found in the ruins of the North Tower 27 hours after its collapse.[46] An unknown number of other people survived the initial collapse, but were buried in air pockets deep beneath the rubble and could not be rescued in time.[47][48] Some were able to rescue themselves and others from the rubble by climbing through the rubble[49] or digging and listening for sounds of life in order to safely remove the victims from the rubble.[50]
Survivor advocacy[edit]
As of September 28, 2008, a total of over 33,000 police officers, firefighters, responders, and community members have been treated for injuries and sickness related to the 9/11 attacks in New York City, including respiratory conditions, mental health problems like PTSD and depression, gastrointestinal conditions, and at least 4,166 cases of cancer; according to one advocacy group 'more cops have died of illness linked to the attack than had perished in it'.[51][52]
Jon Stewart speaks as part of hearing on 9/11 Victim Compensation Fund - GLOBAL NEWS |
Talk show host Jon Stewart and others succeeded in pushing for a law passed by Congress in 2015 that permanently extends health care benefits for the responders and adds five years to the victims' compensation program.[52] Stewart's advocacy on the issue continued into 2019, in June 2019 he testified in front of Congress on behalf of 9/11 first responders who did not have proper health care benefits from the September 11th Victim Compensation Fund. During the testimony he was critical that 'Sick and dying, they [first responders] brought themselves down here to speak to no one' and that it was 'Shameful' and '...an embarrassment to the county and it is a stain on this institution.'[53]
Fatalities[edit]
World Trade Center[edit]
September 11 Memorial fountain at base of where one of the towers once stood, and the associated museum at left
An estimated 2,606 people who were in the World Trade Center and on the ground perished in the attacks on and the subsequent collapse of the towers.[3][54] This figure consisted of 2,192 civilians (including eight EMTs and paramedics from private hospital units); 343 members of the New York City Fire Department (FDNY); and 71 law enforcement officers including 23 members of the New York City Police Department (NYPD), 37 members of the Port Authority Police Department (PAPD), five members of the New York State Office of Tax Enforcement (OTE), three officers of the New York State Office of Court Administration (OCA), one fire marshal of the New York City Fire Department (FDNY) who had sworn law enforcement powers (and was also among the 343 FDNY members killed), one member of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), one member of the New York Fire Patrol (FPNY), and one member of the United States Secret Service (USSS).[55][56] This included a bomb-sniffing dog named Sirius,[57] who was not included in the official death toll.
The average age of the dead in New York City was 40.[58] In the buildings, the youngest victim was 18 and the oldest was 79.[59][60]
North Tower[edit]
1,402 people died at or above the floors of impact in the North Tower. According to the Commission Report, hundreds were killed instantly by the impact while the remainder of the fatalities were trapped above the impact zone and died after the tower collapsed. Although a few people would subsequently be found alive in the rubble following the collapse of the towers, none of these individuals were from above the impact zone.[61] An additional 24 people officially remain listed as missing[when?].[62]
John P. O'Neill was a former assistant director of the FBI who assisted in the capture of 1993 World Trade Center bomberRamzi Yousef and was the head of security at the World Trade Center when he was killed trying to rescue people from the North Tower.[63]Cantor Fitzgerald L.P., an investment bank on the 101st–105th floors of One World Trade Center, lost 658 employees, considerably more than any other employer. Marsh Inc., located immediately below Cantor Fitzgerald on floors 93–100 (the location of Flight 11's impact), lost 295 employees and 63 consultants.[64][65]Risk Waters, a business organization, was holding a conference in Windows on the World at the time, with 81 people in attendance.[66][67]
South Tower[edit]
614 people were killed at or above the floors of impact in the South Tower. Only 18 people are known to have managed to escape using staircase A before the South Tower collapsed; a further 11 people killed in the attacks are known to have been killed below the impact zone after United Airlines Flight 175 struck the South Tower. The 9/11 Commission notes that this fact strongly indicates that evacuation below the impact zones was a success, allowing most to safely evacuate before the collapse of the World Trade Center.[68]
World Trade Center Hotel[edit]
There is no precise number of deaths that occurred within the hotel as many who sheltered in the hotel during and after the collapse of the South Tower were protected by the reinforced beams that had been installed by the Port Authority after the 1993 bombing.[69] At least two hotel employees are believed to have died during the collapse as they were outside of the safe zone.[39]
Deaths involving elevators[edit]
A USA Today report estimated that approximately 200 people perished inside the elevators, while only 21 escaped the elevators. Many elevators did not plunge, but were destroyed by the crash and subsequent fires, or were stranded in the shafts. A locking mechanism prevented escapees and rescuers, except on one elevator, from opening the doors on stranded elevators.[70] One survivor recounted having to pry open a narrow gap between the doors of the elevator to escape by utilizing the stairs.[71]
Deaths by jumping or falling[edit]
Before the Twin Towers collapsed, an estimated 200 people fell to their deaths from the burning towers, landing on the streets and rooftops of adjacent buildings hundreds of feet below at a speed of almost 150 miles per hour—sufficient to cause instantaneous death upon impact, but insufficient to cause unconsciousness throughout the actual fall. Most of those who fell from the World Trade Center had jumped from the North Tower.[72] A secondary casualty was seen when a civilian landed on and killed a fireman near the intersection of West and Liberty streets, around 9:30 am.[68]
To witnesses upon the ground, many of the people falling from the towers seemed to have deliberately jumped to their deaths,[73] including the person whose photograph became known as the Falling Man. The NIST report officially describes the deaths of 104 jumpers but states that this figure likely understates the true number of those who died in this manner. The sight and sound of these individuals falling from the towers, then 'smashing like eggs on the ground' horrified and traumatized many witnesses. The jumpers' death certificates state the cause of death as 'blunt trauma' due to homicide.[74] Some of the occupants of each tower above its point of impact made their way upward toward the roof in hope of helicopter rescue, only to find the roof access doors locked. Port Authority officers attempted to unlock the doors but control systems would not let them; in any case, thick smoke and intense heat would have prevented rescue helicopters from landing.[75]
Conspiracy theories[edit]
Contrary to some conspiracy theories about Jews being warned not to go to work that day, the number of Jews who died in the attacks is variously estimated at between 270 and 400, based on the last names of the dead.[76][78][79]
List of the dead[edit]
The following list details the number of deaths reported by companies in business premises at the World Trade Center. The list includes WTC tenants (all buildings), vendors, visitors, independent emergency responders, and some hijacked passenger-related firms.[80]
Company | Tower | Floors | Deaths |
---|---|---|---|
Cantor Fitzgerald | North | 101–105 | 658 |
Marsh & McLennan | North | 93–100 | 295 |
Aon Corporation | South | 92, 98–105 | 175 |
Fiduciary Trust International | South | 90, 94–97 | 87 |
Windows on the World | North | 106–107 | 72 |
Carr Futures | North | 92 | 69 |
Keefe, Bruyette & Woods | South | 85, 88–89 | 67 |
Sandler O'Neill and Partners | South | 104 | 66 |
Euro Brokers Inc. | South | 84 | 61 |
New York State Department of Taxation and Finance | South | 86–87 | 39 |
Port Authority of New York and New Jersey | North | 3, 14, 19, 24, 28, 31, 34 | 37 |
Fred Alger Management | North | 93 | 35 |
Fuji Bank | South | 79–82 | 23 |
Forte Food Service | North | Cantor Fitzgerald | 21 |
ABM Industries | Both | N/A | 17 |
Risk Waters Group | North | Windows on the World | 16 |
General Telecom | North | 83 | 13 |
Washington Group International | South | 91 | 12 |
American Express | North | 94 | 11 |
Summit Security Services | Both | N/A | 11 |
Morgan Stanley | Both | North: 59–74 South: 43–46, 56, 59–74 | 10 |
Empire Blue Cross Blue Shield Association | North | 27–28, 30–31 | 8 |
Alliance Consulting | North | 102 | 7 |
Aramark | North: 2 South: 5 | Observation Deck 107 | 7 |
Accenture | North | Windows on the World | 6 |
Harvey Young Yurman Inc. | North | Windows on the World | 6 |
Bronx Builders | North | Windows on the World | 5 |
Forest Electric Corp. | North | Cantor Fitzgerald | 5 |
Harris Beach LLP | South | 85 | 5 |
OCS Security | Throughout Complex | N/A | 5 |
Regus | South | 93 | 5 |
Baseline Financial Services | South | 77–78 | 4 |
Compaq | North | Windows on the World | 4 |
Data Synapse | North | Windows on the World | 4 |
International Office Centers | North | 79 | 4 |
Merrill Lynch | North | Windows on the World | 4 |
Mizuho Capital | South | 80 | 4 |
Oracle Corporation | North | 99 | 4 |
Pitney Bowes | South | 102 | 4 |
Wachovia Corp. | North | 47 | 4 |
Zurich American Insurance | North: 2 South: 2 | 105 | 4 |
Bank of America | North | 81 | 3 |
Bank of New York | N/A | Killed by falling debris | 3 |
Bloomberg L.P. | North | Windows on the World | 3 |
Callixa | North | Windows on the World | 3 |
The Chuo Mitsui Trust and Banking Co. | South | 83 | 3 |
Citibank | North: 1 Subway: 1 N/A: 1 | 105 | 3 |
Encompys | North | Windows on the World | 3 |
IPC Kleinknecht Electric Co. | North | 105 | 3 |
IQ Financial Systems | South | 83 | 3 |
New York State Department of Transportation | North | 82 | 3 |
Reinsurance Solutions Inc. | North | 94 | 3 |
Structure Tone | North: 1 South: 2 | 97, 105 | 3 |
SunGard | South | 102, 104 | 3 |
Thomson Financial Services | North | Windows on the World | 3 |
Advantage Security | Both | N/A | 2 |
BP Air Conditioning | North | 101 | 2 |
Certified Installation Services | South | 105 | 2 |
Denino Electric | North | 95 | 2 |
Deutsche Bank | WTC 4 | N/A | 2 |
Devonshire Group | North | 94 | 2 |
Fine Painting and Decorating | South | Observation Deck | 2 |
First Commercial Bank | N/A | N/A | 2 |
FM Global | South | 102 | 2 |
Franklin Templeton Investments | South | 95 | 2 |
Genuity | South | 110 | 2 |
Guy Carpenter | North | 94 | 2 |
Imagine Software | North | Windows on the World | 2 |
Instinet (Reuters) | North | 13–14 | 2 |
Studley, Inc. | North | 86, 88 | 2 |
Keane | South | 78 | 2 |
Kidder Peabody-Paine Webber | North | 101 | 2 |
Marriott World Trade Center Hotel | N/A | N/A | 2 |
Metropolitan Life Insurance | North | 89 | 2 |
New York Presbyterian Hospital | N/A | N/A | 2 |
Nishi-Nippon Bank | North | 102 | 2 |
Nomura Research Institute Ltd. | North | Windows on the World | 2 |
Ohrenstein & Brown | North | 85 | 2 |
One Source Networks (Hudson Shatz) | N/A | N/A | 2 |
P.E. Stone Inc. | Both | North: 92 South: 105 | 2 |
Petrocelli Electric | N/A | Morgan Stanley Offices | 2 |
Radianz | North | Windows on the World | 2 |
Random Walk Computing | North | 80 | 2 |
Reuters | North | Windows on the World | 2 |
Rohde & Liesenfeld | North | 20, 32–33 | 2 |
Silverstein Properties | South | 88 | 2 |
Slam Dunk Networks | North | 101 | 2 |
Sybase | North | Above Impact Zone | 2 |
UBS-PaineWebber | N/A | Outside Towers | 2 |
UME Voice | North | Windows on the World | 2 |
Verizon | South | 9–12 | 2 |
Vestek | South | 78 | 2 |
Xerox | South | Basement Level | 2 |
Zurich Scudder Investments | North | Windows on the World | 2 |
A.L. Sarroff | N/A | N/A | 1 |
Advent Corporation | North | Roof | 1 |
AGI | South | 103 | 1 |
Algorithmics Inc. | North | Windows on the World | 1 |
Allendale Insurance | South | 102 | 1 |
American Stock Exchange | North | Windows on the World | 1 |
ARC Partners | North | Windows on the World | 1 |
ASAP NetSource | N/A | N/A | 1 |
Association of Independent Recruiters | North | 79 | 1 |
Avalon Partners | North | 83 | 1 |
BEA Systems | North | Windows on the World | 1 |
Bear Stearns | N/A | N/A | 1 |
BMO Nesbitt Burns | North | Cantor Fitzgerald | 1 |
Boston Investor Services | North | Windows on the World | 1 |
Brinks | N/A | Basement | 1 |
Cabrini Hospice | N/A | N/A | 1 |
Cadwalader, Wickersham & Taft | North | Windows on the World | 1 |
Cambridge Technology Partners | North | Windows on the World | 1 |
Caplin Systems | North | Windows on the World | 1 |
CBS | North | 110 | 1 |
Chase Manhattan Bank | N/A | N/A | 1 |
Civilian Complaint Review Board (Heart Attack) | N/A | N/A | 1 |
Colonial Art Decorators | North | Windows on the World | 1 |
Consolidated Edison | N/A | N/A | 1 |
Credit Suisse First Boston | North | Windows on the World | 1 |
Cultural Institution of Retirement Systems | North | 39 | 1 |
Deloitte Consulting | North | Marsh & McLennan | 1 |
Empire Distribution | N/A | N/A | 1 |
EnPointe Technologies | N/A | N/A | 1 |
F.M. Global | South | 105 | 1 |
Federal Bureau of Investigation | N/A | N/A | 1 |
Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation | North | Windows on the World | 1 |
Fine & Schapiro restaurant | N/A | N/A | 1 |
First Liberty Investment Group | North | 79 | 1 |
Forest Hills Ambulance Corps | N/A | N/A | 1 |
Frank W. Lin & Co. | North | 89 | 1 |
G.M.P. Inc. | North | Cantor Fitzgerald | 1 |
Garban Intercapital | North | 25–26 | 1 |
GoldTier Technologies | North | Windows on the World | 1 |
Health Canada | South | 105 | 1 |
Hill International | North | 64 | 1 |
Holland & Knight | N/A | N/A | 1 |
Howard Hughes Medical Institute | N/A | N/A | 1 |
IBM Global | North | 95 | 1 |
Industrial Bank of Japan | North | Cantor Fitzgerald | 1 |
Insurance Overload Systems | North | 79 | 1 |
Internal Revenue Service | N/A | N/A | 1 |
Janus Capital Group | North | Windows on the World | 1 |
Jennison Associates | North | Windows on the World | 1 |
Krestrel Technologies | North | 105 | 1 |
LaBranche & Co. | South | 28–30 | 1 |
Lanagan Engineering and Environmental Services | N/A | N/A | 1 |
Lee Hecht Harrison | South | 93 | 1 |
Lehman Brothers | North | 38–40 | 1 |
LG Insurance Co. | N/A | N/A | 1 |
Liberty Electrical Supply Inc. | N/A | Basement | 1 |
LION Bioscience AG | South | 94 | 1 |
LJ Gonzer | N/A | N/A | 1 |
MAS Security | North | Windows on the World | 1 |
May Davis Group | North | 87 | 1 |
McKeon-Grano | South | 66 | 1 |
Metrocare | N/A | N/A | 1 |
Mitsui Bank | South | 83 | 1 |
MoneyLine | North | Windows on the World | 1 |
NanoTek | N/A | Basement | 1 |
National Acoustics Inc. | North | 103 | 1 |
NTX Interiors | North | 102 | 1 |
Office Centers Corp. | North | 79 | 1 |
Optus | North | Windows on the World | 1 |
Pfizer Inc. | North | Windows on the World | 1 |
PM Contracting | North | 103 | 1 |
Proven Electrical Contracting Inc. | N/A | N/A | 1 |
QRS Corp. | Marriott World Trade Center | 17 | 1 |
Reliable | N/A | N/A | 1 |
Rent-a-PC | North | Windows on the World | 1 |
Risk Solutions International | North | Marsh & McLennan | 1 |
Royal & SunAlliance | South | AON | 1 |
Royston and Zamani | South | Fuji Bank | 1 |
Scient | North | Cantor Fitzgerald | 1 |
Seabury & Smith Co. | South | 49 | 1 |
Sidley Austin Brown & Wood | North | 54, 56–59 | 1 |
Siemens | N/A | Killed by falling debris | 1 |
Signature Painting and Decorating | North | Cantor Fitzgerald | 1 |
Singer Frumento LLP | South | 104 | 1 |
Skidmore, Owings & Merrill | South | AON | 1 |
Sodexho | North | 96 | 1 |
Soundtone Floors Inc. | N/A | N/A | 1 |
Sweeney and Heeking Carpentry | N/A | N/A | 1 |
Syncorp | North | Marsh & McLennan | 1 |
TCG Software | North | Windows on the World | 1 |
Telekurs USA | North | Windows on the World | 1 |
The Westfield Group | South | 17 | 1 |
ThyssenKrupp | N/A | N/A | 1 |
Top of the World Cafe | South | 107, 110 | 1 |
UBS Warburg | North | Windows on the World | 1 |
United Staffing | North | Cantor Fitzgerald | 1 |
Vanderbilt Group Inc. | South | N/A | 1 |
Vital Computer Services | North | Marsh & McLennan | 1 |
WABC-TV | North | 110 | 1 |
WCBS-TV | North | 110 | 1 |
Wipro Technologies | North | 97 | 1 |
WNBC-TV | North | 110 | 1 |
WNET-TV | North | 110 | 1 |
World Trade Center | N/A | N/A | 1 |
World Trade Center Project Renewal | N/A | N/A | 1 |
WPIX-TV | North | 110 | 1 |
Pentagon[edit]
The Pentagon Memorial honoring the victims of the 9/11 terrorist attack on the Pentagon.
125 people working at the Pentagon were killed, most of whom worked for the United States Army or the United States Navy.[81] Of those 125 deaths, 70 were civilians – 47 Army employees, six Army contractors, six Navy employees, three Navy contractors, seven Defense Intelligence Agency employees, and one Office of the Secretary of Defense contractor[82] – and 55 were members of the United States Armed Forces – 33 Navy sailors and 22 Army soldiers.[83]Lieutenant GeneralTimothy Maude, an Army Deputy Chief of Staff, was the highest-ranking military official killed at the Pentagon.[84]
The terrorist attack at the Pentagon on 9/11 was the first deadliest foreign attack on Washington, D.C. since the burning of the U.S. capital by the British during the War of 1812.
Aboard the four planes[edit]
265 fatalities aboard the 4 planes include[85] 87 civilians (including 11 crew members) and the five hijackers aboard American Airlines Flight 11; 60 civilians (including 9 crew members) and the five hijackers aboard United Airlines Flight 175;[86] 59 passengers (including 6 crew members) and the five hijackers aboard American Airlines Flight 77; and 39 civilians (including 7 crew members), a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service officer,[87] and the four hijackers aboard United Airlines Flight 93.[88][89] The dead included eight children: five on American Airlines Flight 77, aged 3 to 11,[90] and three on United Airlines Flight 175, aged 2, 3, and 4.[91] The youngest victim was a two-and-a-half-year-old child on Flight 175 and the oldest was an 85-year-old passenger on Flight 11.[92]
Among those killed were television producer David Angell, who co-created the sitcom Frasier,[93] and actress Berry Berenson,[94] both passengers on Flight 11. Barbara Olson, television political commentator and the wife of then-U.S. Solicitor General Theodore Olson, was aboard Flight 77.[95]
Foreign deaths[edit]
Russian President Vladimir Putin signs a condolence wall to the foreign fatalities in 9/11.
Excluding the 19 perpetrators, people from 77 different countries[96] died, representing more than 12% of the total number of deaths in the attacks, almost half of whom were British, Dominican, Indian, or South Korean. The British Overseas Territory of Bermuda had the highest number of deaths per capita in the World Trade Center attack. Without accounting for some cases of dual citizenship, here is a list of their nationalities:
Country | Deaths | Reference(s) |
---|---|---|
Argentina | 4 | [97] |
Australia | 10 | [98] |
Bangladesh | 6 | [99] |
Belarus | 1 | [100] |
Belgium | 1 | [101] |
Bermuda | 2 | [102] |
Brazil | 3 | [103] |
Canada | 24 | [104][105][106][107] |
Chile | 1 | [108] |
China | 2 | |
Colombia | 18 | [108] |
Czech Republic | 2 | |
D.R. Congo | 2 | |
Dominican Republic | 47 | [108][109] |
Ecuador | 13 | [108] |
El Salvador | 2 | |
Ethiopia | 2 | [110] |
Yugoslavia | 2 | |
France | 4 | [111] |
Georgia | 3 | |
Germany | 11 | |
Ghana | 2 | |
Guyana | 3 | |
Haiti | 2 | |
Hong Kong | 2 | |
Honduras | 1 | |
India | 41 | [112] |
Indonesia | 1 | [113] |
Ireland | 6 | [114][115] |
Israel | 5 | [116] |
Italy | 10 | [117][118] |
Ivory Coast | 1 | |
Jamaica | 16 | [119] |
Japan | 24 | [106][120] |
Jordan | 2 | [121][122][123] |
Kenya | 1 | |
Lebanon | 4 | |
Lithuania | 1 | |
Malaysia | 3 | [124] |
Mexico | 15 | [108] |
Moldova | 1 | |
Netherlands | 1 | |
New Zealand | 2 | [125][126] |
Nigeria | 1 | |
Pakistan | 6 | [127] |
Paraguay | 2 | |
Peru | 5 | |
Philippines | 16 | [128][129] |
Poland | 6 | |
Portugal | 5 | [130] |
Romania | 4 | [131] |
Russia | 1 | |
South Africa | 2 | |
South Korea | 28 | [106][132] |
Spain | 1 | [133] |
Sri Lanka | 1 | [134] |
Sweden | 1 | [135][136] |
Switzerland | 2 | |
Taiwan | 1 | |
Trinidad and Tobago | 14 | |
Ukraine | 1 | |
United Kingdom | 67 | [106][137][138] |
Uzbekistan | 1 | |
Venezuela | 1 |
After the attacks[edit]
During the attacks and afterwards there was a large amount of toxic dust, debris and ash that was centralized around Ground Zero and created long term health problems. Toxic materials such as asbestos, lead, and mercury were in the air and the debris and many victims and first responders did not wear respirators.[139]
It was reported in 2018 that at least 15 FBI agents had died from cancer due to their roles in the aftermath and investigation of the attack.[140] Further, a medical director of the World Trade Center Health Program at Mount Sinai Hospital reported in 2018 that out of the approximately 10,000 first responders and others who were at Ground Zero and have developed cancer as a result, more than 2,000 have died due to 9/11 related illnesses.[141] The Uniformed Firefighters Association of Greater New York also reported over 170 deaths of firefighters due to 9/11-related illnesses, and that roughly 1 in 8 firefighters who were at Ground Zero have developed cancer.[142] At least 221 policemen have died in the years since 2001 from illnesses related to the attacks in New York City.[143]
Forensic identification[edit]
Identifications through DNA can be made by comparing the DNA profile of reference samples with those found in the human remains, through obtaining samples from personal items (toothbrush/hairbrush), banked biological samples, relatives, or other identified remains.[144] The extreme heat, pressures and contamination from the collapse of the buildings has caused some of the DNA to become degraded and unusable.[145] Samples were also degraded because some body fragments remained in the rubble for 8 to 10 months.[146] In response to this, the medical examiner's office and other scientific groups created new techniques to process the bone fragments. The Associated Press reported that the medical examiner's office possesses 'about 10,000 unidentified bone and tissue fragments that cannot be matched to the list of the dead'.[147] Bone fragments were still being found in 2006 as workers prepared the damaged Deutsche Bank Building for demolition.[148]
In order to extract the DNA, medical examiners pulverize the fragments, and compare the extracted DNA to the collection of genetic material from victims and/or their relatives, with scientists revisiting bone fragments multiple times in an attempt to identify the victims.[149] Other issues with identification is seen with those who either fell, or jumped from the top floors of the towers, as many are unsure about the identity of those who did die in this manner, or how many died in this manner.[citation needed]
Identification[edit]
As of September 11, 2012, a total of 2,753 death certificates had been filed relating to the attacks.[150] Of these, 1,588 (58%) were forensically identified from recovered physical remains.[151][152]
On April 17, 2013, five possible remains were recovered after being sifted at Fresh Kills Landfill on Staten Island. The medical examiner said evidence of a possible victim of the attacks was recovered as well two days later.[153] On June 21, 2013, the medical examiner's office matched its 1,637th victim, a 43-year-old woman, to its list of victims as a result of DNA testing of debris collected from the site. By family request, her name was not released.[154] On July 5, 2013, the medical examiner's office identified the remains of FDNY firefighter Lt. Jeffrey P. Walz, 37, after they were retested. His remains were recovered months after the attack and is now the 1,638th victim forensically identified.[155]
On August 7, 2017, the medical examiner's office matched its 1,641st victim. The victim was identified through retesting of DNA from remains recovered in 2001.[156] In 2017 it was reported that only 1,641 victims, or just under 60%, have identified remains.[149]
On July 25, 2018, the medical examiner's office matched its 1,642nd victim. The victim, 26-year-old Scott Michael Johnson, was identified through the retesting of DNA from remains recovered in 2001.[157]
See also[edit]
- Alicia Esteve Head, supposed survivor of the attacks who was later revealed to be a fraud
- Henryk Siwiak homicide – aside from the terrorist attacks, the only homicide recorded in New York City for September 11, 2001
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|publisher=
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On a clear blue morning 10 years ago the world shifted gear. Terrorists flew aircraft into talismanic American buildings, taking nearly 3000 lives. The victims included two New Zealanders. One was an American who had become a New Zealand citizen, the other a New Zealander who had moved to the United States.
CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link) - ^Eriksen, Alanah (September 11, 2009). 'NZ victim of 9/11 has place in memorial'. The New Zealand Herald. New Zealand: APN New Zealand Limited. Archived from the original on April 28, 2014. Retrieved April 27, 2014.
A September 11 memorial will include childhood details of the only New Zealander killed in the attacks, thanks to a chance meeting between a Californian flight attendant and a group from Invercargill. Alan Beaven, a 48-year-old environment lawyer, died eight years ago today on United Airlines Flight 93.
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- ^Hughes, Roland (March 25, 2018). 'Obituary: The 9/11 rescuers who died a day apart'. BBC News. Retrieved September 12, 2018.
- ^https://www.odmp.org/search?state=new-york&cause=9%2F11+related+illness
- ^Ritter, Nancy. 'Identifying Remains: Lessons Learned From 9/11'(PDF). National Institute of Justice Journal. 256: 20–26.
- ^'DNA advances enhance IDs of 9/11 victims'. Newsday. Retrieved September 11, 2018.
- ^'Massive DNA effort to name 1121 unknown dead of 9/11'. New Scientist. Retrieved September 11, 2018.
- ^'Ground Zero Forensic Work Ends'. CBS News. February 23, 2005. Retrieved September 8, 2006.
- ^'Bone fragments are found'. xtimeline. Archived from the original on June 24, 2013. Retrieved June 22, 2013.
- ^ ab'9/11 Victim's Remains Identified Nearly 16 Years Later'. Forensic Magazine. August 8, 2017. Retrieved September 11, 2018.
- ^'We choose not to forget'. tnonline.com. Retrieved June 22, 2013.
- ^'Identification of 9/11 remains comes to an end'. Cable News Network. February 23, 2005. Retrieved February 23, 2005.
- ^Moore, Martha T. (February 24, 2005). 'NYC's work to ID 9/11 victims ends – for now'. USA Today. Retrieved February 23, 2005.
- ^'More Potential Human Remains Identified In WTC Sifting'. NY1. Archived from the original on May 12, 2013. Retrieved April 20, 2013.
- ^'ME's Office: Victim Of September 11th Attacks Identified By ID Testing Of Remains'. NY1. Archived from the original on June 24, 2013. Retrieved June 22, 2013.
- ^'12 years later: Remains of firefighter killed in 9/11 attacks identified'. CNN. July 6, 2013. Retrieved July 6, 2013.
- ^'New World Trade Center victim identified, city ME says'. Newsday. August 7, 2017.
- ^'Keeping Its Promise to Families, New York Identifies Another 9/11 Victim'. New York Times. July 30, 2018.
Further reading[edit]
- 'The Injured: A Fireball, a Prayer to Die, Then a Hard Battle to Live'. The New York Times. October 17, 2001.
- 'The Battery Is Down, All Right, and Crippled'. The New York Times. October 3, 2001.
- 'THE MOURNER: In a Landscape of Sadness, Offering Just Her Presence'. The New York Times. October 1, 2001. The story of Carol O'Neill, wife of a founder of Sandler O'Neill, which lost 67 of 180 employees.
- 'THE TRADE CENTER: The Evacuation That Kept a Horrible Toll From Climbing Higher'. The New York Times. September 21, 2001.
- '190 Feared Dead at the Pentagon'. The NY Times. AP.
- 'Hopes Are Raised, and Dashed, About Rescue of Firefighters'. The New York Times. September 13, 2011.
- Inside the Twin Towers. Discovery Channel. Archived from the original on September 17, 2008.
- 'Collateral Damage, The forgotten Muslim victims of September 11, 2001'. The Independent. October 11, 2001.
- Fussman, Cal (September 11, 2017). 'Story Building Come Down on My Head. An unforgettable story of survival and rebirth on the anniversary of 9/11'. Medium.
External links[edit]
- 'Victims-World Trade Center'. 9-11heroes.us. Full list of WTC attacks victims.
- 'Memorial page dedicated to FDNY Firefighters lost on 9/11'. NYFD.com.
- 'US Senate passes bill allowing 9/11 victims to sue Saudi Arabia'. abna24.com. May 18, 2016.
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Casualties_of_the_September_11_attacks&oldid=918245986'
World Trade Center | ||||||||||||||||
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The original complex in March 2001. The tower on the left, with antenna spire, was 1 WTC. The tower on the right was 2 WTC. All seven buildings of the WTC complex are partially visible. The red granite-clad building left of the Twin Towers was the original 7 World Trade Center. In the background is the East River. | ||||||||||||||||
Record height | ||||||||||||||||
Tallest in the world from 1971 to 1973[I] | ||||||||||||||||
Preceded by | Empire State Building | |||||||||||||||
Surpassed by | Willis Tower | |||||||||||||||
General information | ||||||||||||||||
Status | Destroyed | |||||||||||||||
Location | Lower Manhattan, New York City | |||||||||||||||
Coordinates | 40°42′42″N74°00′45″W / 40.71167°N 74.01250°WCoordinates: 40°42′42″N74°00′45″W / 40.71167°N 74.01250°W | |||||||||||||||
Groundbreaking | August 5, 1966; 53 years ago | |||||||||||||||
Construction started |
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Topped-out | ||||||||||||||||
Completed |
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Opening |
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Inaugurated | April 4, 1973; 46 years ago | |||||||||||||||
Destroyed | September 11, 2001; 18 years ago | |||||||||||||||
Owner | Port Authority of New York and New Jersey | |||||||||||||||
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Design and construction | ||||||||||||||||
Architect | ||||||||||||||||
Developer | Port Authority of New York and New Jersey | |||||||||||||||
Engineer | Worthington, Skilling, Helle & Jackson,[2]Leslie E. Robertson Associates | |||||||||||||||
Main contractor | Tishman Realty & Construction Company | |||||||||||||||
References | ||||||||||||||||
I. ^World Trade Center at Emporis [3][4] |
The original World Trade Center was a large complex of seven buildings in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan, New York City, United States. It opened on April 4, 1973, and was destroyed in 2001 during the September 11 attacks. At the time of their completion, the Twin Towers—the original 1 World Trade Center, at 1,368 feet (417 m); and 2 World Trade Center, at 1,362 feet (415.1 m)—were the tallest buildings in the world. Other buildings in the complex included the Marriott World Trade Center (3 WTC), 4 WTC, 5 WTC, 6 WTC, and 7 WTC. The complex contained 13,400,000 square feet (1,240,000 m2) of office space.
The core of the complex was built between 1975 and 1985, at a cost of $400 million (equivalent to $2.27 billion in 2018).[5] During its existence, the World Trade Center experienced several major incidents, including a fire on February 13, 1975,[6] a bombing on February 26, 1993,[7] and a bank robbery on January 14, 1998.[8] In 1998, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey decided to privatize it by leasing the buildings to a private company to manage. It awarded the lease to Silverstein Properties in July 2001.[9]
On the morning of September 11, 2001, Al-Qaeda-affiliated hijackers flew two Boeing 767 jets into the North and South Towers within minutes of each other; two hours later, both towers collapsed. The attacks killed 2,606 people in and within the vicinity of the towers, as well as all 157 on board the two aircraft.[10] Falling debris from the towers, combined with fires that the debris initiated in several surrounding buildings, led to the partial or complete collapse of all the buildings in the complex, and caused catastrophic damage to ten other large structures in the surrounding area.
The cleanup and recovery process at the World Trade Center site took eight months, during which the remains of the other buildings were demolished. A new World Trade Center complex is being built with six new skyscrapers and several other buildings, many of which have already been completed. A memorial and museum to those killed in the attacks, a new rapid transit hub, and an elevated park have been opened. One World Trade Center, the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere at 1,776 feet (541 m), is the lead building for the new complex, and was completed in November 2014.
During its existence, the World Trade Center was one of the major icons of New York City.[11] It had a major role in popular culture and according to one estimate was depicted in 472 films. Following the World Trade Center's destruction, mentions of the complex were altered or deleted, and several dozen 'memorial films' were created.[12]
- 1Before the World Trade Center
- 2Design and construction
- 3Complex
- 4Major events
- 7Impact
- 7.2As an icon of popular culture
Before the World Trade Center
Radio Row in 1936, with the Cortlandt Street station in the background
![Alarm Alarm](http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-lpJgO_zu0Wo/TuxVYtrDM7I/AAAAAAAAFMM/KZyeRGcKxY4/w1200-h630-p-k-no-nu/Asbestos.jpg)
The western portion of the World Trade Center site was originally under the Hudson River. The shoreline was in the vicinity of Greenwich Street, which is closer to the site's eastern border. It was on this shoreline, close to the intersection of Greenwich and the former Dey Street, that Dutch explorer Adriaen Block's ship, Tyger, burned to the waterline in November 1613, stranding him and his crew and forcing them to overwinter on the island. They built the first European settlement in Manhattan. The remains of the ship were buried under landfill when the shoreline was extended beginning in 1797 and were discovered during excavation work in 1916. The remains of a second eighteenth century ship were discovered in 2010 during excavation work at the site. The ship, believed to be a Hudson River sloop, was found just south of where the Twin Towers stood, about 20 feet (6.1 m) below the surface.[13]
Later, the area became New York City's Radio Row, which existed from 1921 to 1966. The neighborhood was a warehouse district in what is now Tribeca and the Financial District. Harry Schneck opened City Radio on Cortlandt Street in 1921, and eventually the area held several blocks of electronics stores, with Cortlandt Street as its central axis. The used radios, war surplus electronics (e.g., ARC-5 radios), junk, and parts were often piled so high they would spill out onto the street, attracting collectors and scroungers. According to a business writer, it also was the origin of the electronic component distribution business.[14]
![Center Center](/uploads/1/2/5/5/125522747/328223259.jpg)
Establishment of World Trade Center
The idea of establishing a World Trade Center in New York City was first proposed in 1943. The New York State Legislature passed a bill authorizing New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey to begin developing plans for the project,[15] but the plans were put on hold in 1949.[16] During the late 1940s and 1950s, economic growth in New York City was concentrated in Midtown Manhattan. To help stimulate urban renewal in Lower Manhattan, David Rockefeller suggested that the Port Authority build a World Trade Center there.[17]
Plans for the use of eminent domain to remove the shops in Radio Row bounded by Vesey, Church, Liberty, and West Streets began in 1961 when the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey was deciding to build the world's first world trade center. They had two choices: the east side of Lower Manhattan, near the South Street Seaport; or the west side, near the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad (H&M) station, Hudson Terminal.[18] Initial plans, made public in 1961, identified a site along the East River for the World Trade Center.[19] As a bi-state agency, the Port Authority required approval for new projects from the governors of both New York and New Jersey. New Jersey Governor Robert B. Meyner objected to New York getting a $335 million project.[20] Toward the end of 1961, negotiations with outgoing New Jersey Governor Meyner reached a stalemate.[21]
At the time, ridership on New Jersey's H&M Railroad had declined substantially from a high of 113 million riders in 1927 to 26 million in 1958 after new automobile tunnels and bridges had opened across the Hudson River.[22] In a December 1961 meeting between Port Authority director Austin J. Tobin and newly elected New Jersey Governor Richard J. Hughes, the Port Authority offered to take over the H & M Railroad. They also decided to move the World Trade Center project to the Hudson Terminal building site on the west side of Lower Manhattan, a more convenient location for New Jersey commuters arriving via PATH.[21] With the new location and the Port Authority's acquisition of the H&M Railroad, New Jersey agreed to support the World Trade Center project.[23] As part of the deal, the Port Authority renamed the H&M 'Port Authority Trans-Hudson', or PATH for short.[24]
To compensate Radio Row business owners for their displacement, the Port Authority gave each business $3,000, without regard to how long the business had been there or how prosperous it was.[25] The Port Authority began purchasing properties in the area for the World Trade Center by March 1965,[26] and demolition of Radio Row began in March 1966.[27] It was completely demolished by the end of the year.[28]
Approval was also needed from New York City Mayor John Lindsay and the New York City Council. Disagreements with the city centered on tax issues. On August 3, 1966, an agreement was reached whereby the Port Authority would make annual payments to the City in lieu of taxes for the portion of the World Trade Center leased to private tenants.[29] In subsequent years, the payments would rise as the real estate tax rate increased.[30]
Design and construction
Design
Video of the World Trade Center in the 1970s, including scenes of its construction
On September 20, 1962, the Port Authority announced the selection of Minoru Yamasaki as lead architect and Emery Roth & Sons as associate architects.[31] Yamasaki devised the plan to incorporate twin towers. His original plan called for the towers to be 80 stories tall,[32] but to meet the Port Authority's requirement for 10,000,000 square feet (930,000 m2) of office space, the buildings would each have to be 110 stories tall.[33]
Yamasaki's design for the World Trade Center, unveiled to the public on January 18, 1964, called for a square plan approximately 208 feet (63 m) in dimension on each side.[32][34] The buildings were designed with narrow office windows 18 inches (46 cm) wide, which reflected Yamasaki's fear of heights as well as his desire to make building occupants feel secure.[35] His design included building facades sheathed in aluminum-alloy.[36] The World Trade Center was one of the most-striking American implementations of the architectural ethic of Le Corbusier and was the seminal expression of Yamasaki's gothic modernist tendencies.[37] He was also inspired by Arabic architecture, elements of which he incorporated in the building's design.[38][39]
A typical floor layout and elevator arrangement of the WTC towers
A major limiting factor in building height is the issue of elevators; the taller the building, the more elevators are needed to service it, requiring more space-consuming elevator banks.[40] Yamasaki and the engineers decided to use a new system with two 'sky lobbies'—floors where people could switch from a large-capacity express elevator to a local elevator that goes to each floor in a section. This system, inspired by the local-express train operation used in New York City's subway system,[41] allowed the design to stack local elevators within the same elevator shaft. Located on the 44th and 78th floors of each tower, the sky lobbies enabled the elevators to be used efficiently. This increased the amount of usable space on each floor from 62 to 75 percent by reducing the number of elevator shafts.[42] Altogether, the World Trade Center had 95 express and local elevators.[43]
The structural engineering firm Worthington, Skilling, Helle & Jackson worked to implement Yamasaki's design, developing the framed-tube structural system used in the twin towers.[44] The Port Authority's Engineering Department served as foundation engineers, Joseph R. Loring & Associates as electrical engineers, and Jaros, Baum & Bolles (JB&B) as mechanical engineers. Tishman Realty & Construction Company was the general contractor on the World Trade Center project. Guy F. Tozzoli, director of the World Trade Department at the Port Authority, and Rino M. Monti, the Port Authority's Chief Engineer, oversaw the project.[45] As an interstate agency, the Port Authority was not subject to the local laws and regulations of the City of New York, including building codes. Nonetheless, the World Trade Center's structural engineers ended up following draft versions of New York City's new 1968 building codes.[46]
The exterior structure of the World Trade Center towers
The framed-tube design, introduced in the 1960s by Fazlur Khan,[47] was a new approach that allowed more open floor plans than the traditional design that distributed columns throughout the interior to support building loads. Each of the World Trade Center towers had 236 high-strength, load-bearing perimeter steel columns which acted as Vierendeel trusses.[48][44] The perimeter columns were spaced closely together to form a strong, rigid wall structure, supporting virtually all lateral loads such as wind loads, and sharing the gravity load with the core columns.[44] The perimeter structure containing 59 columns per side was constructed with extensive use of prefabricated modular pieces, each consisting of three columns, three stories tall, connected by spandrel plates.[49] The spandrel plates were welded to the columns to create the modular pieces off-site at the fabrication shop.[50] Adjacent modules were bolted together with the splices occurring at mid-span of the columns and spandrels. The spandrel plates were located at each floor, transmitting shear stress between columns, allowing them to work together in resisting lateral loads. The joints between modules were staggered vertically, so that the column splices between adjacent modules were not at the same floor.[46] Below 7th floor to the foundation, there were fewer, wider-spaced perimeter columns to accommodate doorways.[49][44]
View north from the World Trade Center, July 1990
The core of the towers housed the elevator and utility shafts, restrooms, three stairwells, and other support spaces. The core of each tower was a rectangular area 87 by 135 feet (27 by 41 m) and contained 47 steel columns running from the bedrock to the top of the tower. The large, column-free space between the perimeter and core was bridged by prefabricated floor trusses. The floors supported their own weight as well as live loads, providing lateral stability to the exterior walls and distributing wind loads among the exterior walls.[51] The floors consisted of 4-inch (10 cm) thick lightweight concrete slabs laid on a fluted steel deck. A grid of lightweight bridging trusses and main trusses supported the floors.[49] The trusses connected to the perimeter at alternate columns and were on 6 foot 8 inch (2.03 m) centers. The top chords of the trusses were bolted to seats welded to the spandrels on the exterior side and a channel welded to the core columns on the interior side. The floors were connected to the perimeter spandrel plates with viscoelastic dampers that helped reduce the amount of sway felt by building occupants.
Hat trusses (or 'outrigger trusses') located from the 107th floor to the top of the buildings were designed to support a tall communication antenna on top of each building.[49] Only 1 WTC (north tower) actually had an antenna fitted; it was added in 1978.[52] The truss system consisted of six trusses along the long axis of the core and four along the short axis. This truss system allowed some load redistribution between the perimeter and core columns and supported the transmission tower.[49]
The framed-tube design, using steel core and perimeter columns protected with sprayed-on fire resistant material, created a relatively lightweight structure that would sway more in response to the wind compared to traditional structures, such as the Empire State Building that have thick, heavy masonry for fireproofing of steel structural elements.[53] During the design process, wind tunnel tests were done to establish design wind pressures that the World Trade Center towers could be subjected to and structural response to those forces.[54] Experiments also were done to evaluate how much sway occupants could comfortably tolerate; however, many subjects experienced dizziness and other ill effects.[55] One of the chief engineers Leslie Robertson worked with Canadian engineer Alan G. Davenport to develop viscoelastic dampers to absorb some of the sway. These viscoelastic dampers, used throughout the structures at the joints between floor trusses and perimeter columns along with some other structural modifications, reduced the building sway to an acceptable level.[56]
Construction
World Trade Center under construction in May 1971
In March 1965, the Port Authority began acquiring property at the World Trade Center site.[26] Demolition work began on March 21, 1966, to clear thirteen square blocks of low rise buildings in Radio Row for its construction.[27] Groundbreaking for the construction of the World Trade Center took place on August 5, 1966.[57]
The site of the World Trade Center was located on landfill with the bedrock located 65 feet (20 m) below.[58] To construct the World Trade Center, it was necessary to build a 'bathtub' with a slurry wall around the West Street side of the site, to keep water from the Hudson River out.[59] The slurry method selected by the Port Authority's chief engineer, John M. Kyle, Jr., involved digging a trench, and as excavation proceeded, filling the space with a 'slurry' mixture composed of bentonite and water, which plugged holes and kept groundwater out. When the trench was dug out, a steel cage was inserted and concrete was poured in, forcing the 'slurry' out. It took fourteen months for the slurry wall to be completed. It was necessary before excavation of material from the interior of the site could begin.[60] The 1,200,000 cubic yards (920,000 m3) of excavated material were used (along with other fill and dredge material) to expand the Manhattan shoreline across West Street to form Battery Park City.[61][62]
In January 1967, the Port Authority awarded $74 million in contracts to various steel suppliers.[63] Construction work began on the North Tower in August 1968, and construction on the South Tower was under way by January 1969.[64] The original Hudson Tubes, which carried PATH trains into Hudson Terminal, remained in service during the construction process until 1971, when a new station opened.[65] The topping out ceremony of 1 WTC (North Tower) took place on December 23, 1970, while 2 WTC's ceremony (South Tower) occurred on July 19, 1971.[64] Extensive use of prefabricated components helped to speed up the construction process, and the first tenants moved into the North Tower in December 15, 1970, while it was still under construction,[66][4] while the South Tower began accepting tenants in January 1972.[67] When the World Trade Center twin towers were completed, the total costs to the Port Authority had reached $900 million.[68] The ribbon cutting ceremony took place on April 4, 1973.[69]
In addition to the twin towers, the plan for the World Trade Center complex included four other low-rise buildings, which were built in the early 1970s. The 47-story 7 World Trade Center building was added in the 1980s, to the north of the main complex. Altogether, the main World Trade Center complex occupied a 16-acre (65,000 m2) superblock.[70][71]
Criticism
The WTC site building arrangement
Plans to build the World Trade Center were controversial. Its site was the location of Radio Row, home to hundreds of commercial and industrial tenants, property owners, small businesses, and approximately 100 residents, many of whom fiercely resisted forced relocation.[72] A group of affected small businesses sought an injunction challenging the Port Authority's power of eminent domain.[73] The case made its way through the court system to the United States Supreme Court; it refused to hear the case.[74]
Private real estate developers and members of the Real Estate Board of New York, led by Empire State Building owner Lawrence A. Wien, expressed concerns about this much 'subsidized' office space going on the open market, competing with the private sector, when there was already a glut of vacancies.[75][76] The World Trade Center itself was not rented out completely until after 1979 and then only because the complex's subsidy by the Port Authority made rents charged for its office space cheaper than those for comparable space in other buildings.[77] Others questioned whether the Port Authority should have taken on a project described by some as a 'mistaken social priority'.[78]
The World Trade Center's design aesthetics attracted criticism from the American Institute of Architects and other groups.[36][79]Lewis Mumford, author of The City in History and other works on urban planning, criticized the project, describing it and other new skyscrapers as 'just glass-and-metal filing cabinets'.[80] The Twin Towers were described as looking similar to 'the boxes that the Empire State Building and the Chrysler Building came in'.[81] Many disliked the twin towers' narrow office windows, which were only 18 inches (46 cm) wide and framed by pillars that restricted views on each side to narrow slots.[35] Activist and sociologist Jane Jacobs argued the waterfront should be kept open for New Yorkers to enjoy.[82]
Some critics regarded the trade center's 'superblock', replacing a more traditional, dense neighborhood, as an inhospitable environment that disrupted the complicated traffic network typical of Manhattan. For example, in his book The Pentagon of Power, Lewis Mumford denounced the center as an 'example of the purposeless giantism and technological exhibitionism that are now eviscerating the living tissue of every great city'.[71]
In 1982, the immense plaza between the twin towers was renamed after the Port Authority's late chairman, Austin J. Tobin.[83] During the summer, the Port Authority installed a portable stage within Tobin Plaza for performers.[84] For many years, the Plaza was often beset by brisk winds at ground level owing to the Venturi effect between the two towers.[85] Some gusts were so strong that pedestrians' travel had to be aided by ropes.[86] In 1999, the outdoor plaza reopened after undergoing $12 million in renovations. This involved replacing marble pavers with gray and pink granite stones, adding new benches, planters, new restaurants, food kiosks and outdoor dining areas.[87]
Complex
The World Trade Center complex housed more than 430 companies that were engaged in various commercial activities.[88] On a typical weekday, an estimated 50,000 people worked in the complex and another 140,000 passed through as visitors.[88] The complex hosted 13,400,000 square feet (1,240,000 m2) of office space,[89][90] and was so large that it had its own zip code: 10048.[91] The towers offered expansive views from the observation deck atop the South Tower and the Windows on the World restaurant on top of the North Tower. The Twin Towers became known worldwide, appearing in numerous movies and television shows as well as on postcards and other merchandise. It became a New York icon, in the same league as the Empire State Building, the Chrysler Building, and the Statue of Liberty.[92] The World Trade Center was compared to Rockefeller Center, which David Rockefeller's brother Nelson had developed in midtown Manhattan.[93]
North and South Towers
Lobby of Tower 1, looking south along the east side of the building, August 19, 2000
One World Trade Center and Two World Trade Center, commonly referred to as the Twin Towers, were designed by architect Minoru Yamasaki as framed tube structures, which provided tenants with open floor plans, uninterrupted by columns or walls.[94][95] They were the main buildings of the World Trade Center.[64] Construction of the North Tower at One World Trade Center began in 1966 with the South Tower at Two World Trade Center.[96] When completed in 1972, 1 World Trade Center became the tallest building in the world for two years, surpassing the Empire State Building after its 40-year reign. The North Tower stood 1,368 feet (417 m) tall[96] and featured a 362 foot (110 m) telecommunications antenna or mast that was built on the roof in 1978. With this addition, the highest point of the North Tower reached 1,730 feet (530 m).[97] Chicago's Sears Tower, finished in May 1973, reached 1,450 feet (440 m) at the rooftop.[98]
South Tower lobby interior, overlooking the elevator core and red carpet from the balcony, October 1988
When completed in 1973, the South Tower became the second tallest building in the world at 1,362 feet (415 m). Its rooftop observation deck was 1,362 ft (415 m) high and its indoor observation deck was 1,310 ft (400 m) high.[97] Each tower stood over 1,350 feet (410 m) high, and occupied about 1 acre (4,000 m2) of the total 16 acres (65,000 m2) of the site's land. During a press conference in 1973, Yamasaki was asked, 'Why two 110-story buildings? Why not one 220-story building?' His tongue-in-cheek response was: 'I didn't want to lose the human scale.'[99]
Throughout their existence, the twin towers had more floors (at 110) than any other building.[97] Their floor counts were not surpassed until the construction of the Burj Khalifa, which opened in 2010.[100][101] Each tower had a total mass of around 500,000 tons.[102]
Top of the World observation deck
Visitors on the viewing platform on the South Tower's roof, looking north toward Midtown Manhattan in 1984
Although most of the space in the World Trade Center complex was off-limits to the public, the South Tower featured a public observation deck on the 107th floor called Top of the World.[103][104] After paying an entrance fee, visitors were required to pass through security checks added after the 1993 World Trade Center bombing.[105] They were then sent to the 107th-floor indoor observatory at a height of 1,310 feet (400 m) by a dedicated express elevator.[103] The exterior columns were narrowed to allow 28 inches of window width between them. The Port Authority renovated the observatory in 1995, then leased it to Ogden Entertainment to operate. Attractions added to the observation deck included a theater showing a film of a helicopter tour around the city.[103] The 107th-floor food court was designed with a subway car theme and featured Sbarro and Nathan's Famous Hot Dogs.[97][106] Weather permitting, visitors could ride two short escalators up from the 107th-floor viewing area to an outdoor platform at a height of 1,377 ft (420 m).[103][107] On a clear day, visitors could see up to 50 miles (80 km).[97] An anti-suicide fence was placed on the roof itself, with the viewing platform set back and elevated above it, requiring only an ordinary railing. This left the view unobstructed, unlike the observation deck of the Empire State Building.[106]
Windows on the World restaurant
Windows on the World restaurant interior, November 4, 1999
Windows on the World, the restaurant on the North Tower's 106th and 107th floors opened in April 1976. It was developed by restaurateur Joe Baum at a cost of more than $17 million.[108] As well as the main restaurant, two offshoots were located at the top of the North Tower: Hors d'Oeuvrerie (offered a Danish smorgasbord during the day and sushi in the evening) and Cellar in the Sky (a small wine bar).[109] Windows on the World also had a wine school program run by Kevin Zraly, who published a book on the course.[110]
Windows on the World was closed following the 1993 World Trade Center bombing.[108] When it reopened in 1996, the Greatest Bar on Earth and Wild Blue replaced the original restaurant offshoots.[109] In 2000, its last full year of operation, Windows on the World reported revenues of $37 million, making it the highest-grossing restaurant in the United States.[111] The Sky Dive Restaurant, on the 44th floor of the North Tower, was also operated by Windows on the World.[109]
In its last iteration, Windows on the World received mixed reviews. Ruth Reichl, a New York Times food critic, said in December 1996 that 'nobody will ever go to Windows on the World just to eat, but even the fussiest food person can now be content dining at one of New York's favorite tourist destinations'. She gave the restaurant two out of four stars, signifying a 'very good' quality.[112] In his 2009 book Appetite, William Grimes wrote that, 'At Windows, New York was the main course'.[113] In 2014, Ryan Sutton of Eater.com compared the now-destroyed restaurant's cuisine to that of its replacement, One World Observatory. He said, 'Windows helped usher in a new era of captive audience dining in that the restaurant was a destination in itself, rather than a lazy by-product of the vital institution it resided in.'[114]
Other buildings
The World Financial Center and Battery Park City, next to the World Trade Center, were built on reclaimed land.
Five smaller buildings stood on the 16-acre (65,000 m2) block.[115] One was the 22-floor hotel, which opened at the southwest corner of the site in 1981 as the Vista Hotel;[116] in 1995, it became the Marriott World Trade Center (3 WTC).[115] Three low-rise buildings (4 WTC, 5 WTC, and 6 WTC), which were steel-framed office buildings, also stood around the plaza.[117]6 World Trade Center, at the northwest corner, housed the United States Customs Service.[118]5 World Trade Center was located at the northeast corner above the PATH station, and 4 World Trade Center, located at the southeast corner,[119] housed the U.S. Commodities Exchange.[118] In 1987, construction was completed on a 47-floor office building, 7 World Trade Center, located to the north of the superblock.[120] Beneath the World Trade Center complex was an underground shopping mall. It had connections to various mass transit facilities, including the New York City Subway system and the Port Authority's PATH trains.[121][122]
One of the world's largest gold depositories was located underneath the World Trade Center, owned by a group of commercial banks. The 1993 bombing detonated close to the vault.[123] Seven weeks after the September 11 attacks, $230 million in precious metals was removed from basement vaults of 4 WTC. This included 3,800 100-Troy-ounce 24 carat gold bars and 30,000 1,000-ounce silver bars.[124]
Major events
February 13, 1975, fire
On February 13, 1975, a three-alarm fire broke out on the 11th floor of the North Tower. It spread to the 9th and 14th floors after igniting telephone cable insulation in a utility shaft that ran vertically between floors. Areas at the furthest extent of the fire were extinguished almost immediately; the original fire was put out in a few hours. Most of the damage was concentrated on the 11th floor, fueled by cabinets filled with paper, alcohol-based fluid for office machines, and other office equipment. Fireproofing protected the steel and there was no structural damage to the tower. In addition to fire damage on the 9th through the 14th floors, the water used to extinguish the fire damaged a few of the floors below. At that time, the World Trade Center had no fire sprinkler systems.[6]
February 26, 1993, bombing
Aftermath of the 1993 bombing
The first terrorist attack on the World Trade Center occurred on February 26, 1993, at 12:17 p.m. A Ryder truck filled with 1,500 pounds (680 kg) of explosives, planted by Ramzi Yousef, detonated in the underground garage of the North Tower.[7] The blast opened a 100-foot (30 m) hole through five sublevels with the greatest damage occurring on levels B1 and B2 and significant structural damage on level B3.[125] Six people were killed, and 1,042 others were injured in the attacks, some from smoke inhalation.[126][127] Sheikh Omar Abdel Rahman[128] and four other individuals[129] were later convicted for their involvement in the bombing,[128][129] while Yousef and Eyad Ismoil were convicted for carrying out the bombing.[130] According to a presiding judge, the conspirators' chief aim at the time of the attack was to destabilize the north tower and send it crashing into the south tower, toppling both landmarks.[131]
Following the bombing, floors that were blown out needed to be repaired to restore the structural support they provided to columns.[132] The slurry wall was in peril following the bombing and loss of the floor slabs that provided lateral support against pressure from Hudson River water on the other side. The refrigeration plant on sublevel B5, which provided air conditioning to the entire World Trade Center complex, was heavily damaged.[133] After the bombing, the Port Authority installed photoluminescent pathway markings in the stairwells.[134] The fire alarm system for the entire complex needed to be replaced because critical wiring and signaling in the original system were destroyed.[135] A memorial to the victims of the bombing, a reflecting pool, was installed with the names of those who were killed in the blast.[136] It was destroyed following the September 11 attacks. The names of the victims of the 1993 bombing are included in the National September 11 Memorial & Museum.[137]
January 14, 1998, robbery
In January 1998, Mafia member Ralph Guarino gained maintenance access to the World Trade Center. He arranged a three-man crew for a heist that netted over $2 million from a Brinks delivery to the eleventh floor.[8]
Other events
On February 20, 1981, an Aerolíneas Argentinas airliner was guided away by air traffic controllers after radar signals indicated it was on a collision course with the North Tower (1 WTC). The aircraft, which was scheduled to land at nearby JFK Airport, was flying at a much lower altitude than regulations recommended.[138]
The 1995 PCA world chess championship was played on the 107th floor of the South Tower.[139]
Proposed lease
In 1998, the Port Authority approved plans to privatize the World Trade Center,[140] and in 2001 sought to lease it to a private entity. Bids for the lease came from Vornado Realty Trust, a joint bid between Brookfield Properties Corporation and Boston Properties,[141] and a joint bid by Silverstein Properties and The Westfield Group.[9] Privatizing the World Trade Center would add it to the city's tax rolls[9] and provide funds for other Port Authority projects.[142] On February 15, 2001, the Port Authority announced that Vornado Realty Trust had won the lease for the World Trade Center, paying $3.25 billion for the 99-year lease.[143]Vornado outbid Silverstein by $600 million though Silverstein upped his offer to $3.22 billion. However, Vornado insisted on last minute changes to the deal, including a shorter 39-year lease, which the Port Authority considered nonnegotiable.[144] Vornado later withdrew and Silverstein's bid for the lease to the World Trade Center was accepted on April 26, 2001,[145] and closed on July 24, 2001.[146]
Destruction
A fireball rises in the immediate aftermath of United Airlines Flight 175 hitting the South Tower during the September 11 attacks.
On September 11, 2001, Islamist terrorists hijacked American Airlines Flight 11 and crashed it into the northern façade of the North Tower [147] at 8:46:40 a.m.; the aircraft struck between the 93rd and 99th floors. Seventeen minutes later, at 9:03:11 a.m., a second group crashed the similarly hijacked United Airlines Flight 175 into the southern façade of the South Tower, striking it between the 77th and 85th floors.[148] The damage caused to the North Tower by Flight 11 destroyed any means of escape from above the impact zone, trapping 1,344 people.[149] Flight 175 had a much more off-centered impact compared to Flight 11, and a single stairwell was left intact; however, only a few people managed to descend successfully before the tower collapsed. Although the South Tower was struck lower than the North Tower, thus affecting more floors, a smaller number, fewer than 700, were killed instantly or trapped.[150]
At 9:59 a.m., the South Tower collapsed after burning for approximately 56 minutes. The fire caused steel structural elements, already weakened from the plane's impact, to fail. The North Tower collapsed at 10:28 a.m., after burning for approximately 102 minutes.[151] At 5:20 p.m.[152] on September 11, 2001, 7 World Trade Center began to collapse with the crumbling of the east penthouse; it collapsed completely at 5:21 p.m.[152] owing to uncontrolled fires causing structural failure.[153]
World Trade Center site after 9/11 attacks, seen from above with original building locations outlined in yellow
The Marriott World Trade Center hotel was destroyed during the collapse of the two towers. The three remaining buildings in the WTC plaza were extensively damaged by debris and were later demolished.[154] The cleanup and recovery process at the World Trade Center site took eight months.[155] The Deutsche Bank Building across Liberty Street from the World Trade Center complex was later condemned because of the uninhabitable toxic conditions inside; it was deconstructed, with work completed in early 2011.[156][157] The Borough of Manhattan Community College's Fiterman Hall at 30 West Broadway was also condemned owing to extensive damage, and it was demolished and completely rebuilt.[158]
In the immediate aftermath of the attacks, media reports suggested that tens of thousands might have been killed in the attacks, as over 50,000 people could have been inside the World Trade Center. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) estimated approximately 17,400 individuals were in the towers at the time of the attacks.[159] Ultimately, 2,753 death certificates (excluding those for hijackers) were filed relating to the 9/11 attacks. 2,192 civilians died in and around the World Trade Center, including employees of Cantor Fitzgerald L.P. (an investment bank on the 101st–105th floors of One World Trade Center),[160]Marsh & McLennan Companies (located immediately below Cantor Fitzgerald on floors 93–101, the location of Flight 11's impact), and Aon Corporation.[161] In addition to the civilian deaths, hundreds of emergency workers were also killed. These included 343 New York City Fire Department (FDNY) firefighters; 71 law enforcement officers, including 37 members of the Port Authority Police Department (PAPD) and 23 members of the New York City Police Department (NYPD); and 10 EMS personnel: 2 FDNY paramedics and 8 personnel (from private agencies).[162][163][164] Ten years after the attacks, the remains of only 1,629 victims had been identified.[165] Of all the people who were still in the towers when they collapsed, only 20 were pulled out alive.[166]
New World Trade Center
Rebuilding of the World Trade Center |
---|
One WTC |
2–7 WTC |
Other elements |
Over the following years, plans were created for the reconstruction of the World Trade Center. The Lower Manhattan Development Corporation (LMDC), established in November 2001 to oversee the rebuilding process,[167] organized competitions to select a site plan and memorial design.[168]Memory Foundations, designed by Daniel Libeskind, was selected as the master plan;[169] however, substantial changes were made to the design.[170]
The National September 11 Memorial. The reflecting pools are on the site of the Twin Towers.
The first new building at the site was 7 WTC, which opened on May 23, 2006.[171] The memorial section of the National September 11 Memorial & Museum opened on September 11, 2011,[172] and the museum opened on May 21, 2014.[173] 1 WTC opened on November 3, 2014;[174] 4 WTC opened on November 13, 2013;[175] and 3 WTC opened on June 11, 2018.[176]
In November 2013, according to an agreement made with Silverstein Properties Inc., the new 2 WTC would not be built to its full height until sufficient space was leased to make the building financially viable.[177] Above-ground construction of 5 WTC was also suspended due to a lack of tenants[178] as well as disputes between the Port Authority and the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation.[179] In mid-2015, Silverstein Properties revealed plans for a redesigned 2 WTC, to be designed by Bjarke Ingels and completed by 2020 with News Corp as anchor tenant.[180] Four years later, with no anchor tenant for 2 WTC, Silverstein expressed his intent to resume work on the tower regardless of whether a tenant had signed.[181]
Impact
On the surrounding community
The original World Trade Center created a superblock that cut through the area's street grid, isolating the complex from the rest of the community.[70][182][183] The Port Authority had demolished several streets to make way for the towers within the World Trade Center. The project involved combining the twelve-block area bounded by Vesey, Church, Liberty, and West Streets on the north, east, south, and west, respectively.[182][184] 7 World Trade Center, built on the superblock's north side in the late 1980s, was built over another block of Greenwich Street. The building acted as a physical barrier separating Tribeca to the north and the Financial District to the south.[185] The underground mall at the World Trade Center also drew shoppers away from surrounding streets.[186]
The World Trade Center, as seen from a nearby street in 2000
The project was seen as being monolithic and overambitious,[187] with the design having had no public input.[188] By contrast, the rebuilding plans had significant public input.[189] The public supported rebuilding a street grid through the World Trade Center site.[188][182][190] One of the rebuilding proposals included building an enclosed shopping street along the path of Cortlandt Street, one of the streets demolished to make room for the original World Trade Center.[186] However, it was ultimately decided to build Cortlandt, Fulton, and Greenwich Streets, which had been destroyed during the original World Trade Center's construction.[182]
As an icon of popular culture
Before its destruction, the World Trade Center was a New York City icon, and the Twin Towers were the centerpiece that represented the entire complex. They were used in film and TV projects as 'establishing shots', standing for New York City as a whole.[12] In 1999, one writer noted: 'Nearly every guidebook in New York City lists the Twin Towers among the city's top ten attractions.'[11]
There were several high-profile events that occurred at the World Trade Center. The most notable was held at the original WTC in 1974. French high wire acrobatic performer Philippe Petit walked between the two towers on a tightrope,[191] as shown in the documentary film Man on Wire (2008)[192] and depicted in the feature film The Walk (2015).[193] Petit walked between the towers eight times on a steel cable.[194][191] In 1975, Owen J. Quinn base-jumped from the roof of the North Tower and safely landed on the plaza between the buildings.[195] Quinn claimed that he was trying to publicize the plight of the poor.[195] In 1977, Brooklyn toymaker George Willig scaled the exterior of the South Tower. He later said, 'It looked unscalable; I thought I'd like to try it.'[196][197] Six years later, high-rise firefighting and rescue advocate Dan Goodwin successfully climbed the outside of the North Tower to call attention to the inability to rescue people potentially trapped in the upper floors of skyscrapers.[198][199]
The complex was featured in numerous works of popular culture; in 2006, it was estimated that the World Trade Center had appeared in some form in 472 films.[12] Several iconic meanings were attributed to the World Trade Center. Film critic David Sterritt, who lived near the complex, said that the World Trade Center's appearance in the 1978 film Superman 'summarized a certain kind of American grandeur [...] the grandeur, I would say, of sheer American powerfulness'. Remarking on the towers' destruction in the 1996 film Independence Day, Sterritt said, 'The Twin Towers have been destroyed in various disaster movies that were made before 9/11. That became something that you couldn't do even retroactively after 9/11.' Other motifs included romance, depicted in the 1988 film Working Girl, and corporate avarice, depicted in Wall Street (1987) and The Bonfire of the Vanities (1987).[200] Comic books, animated cartoons, television shows, video games, and music videos also used the complex as a setting.[201]
After the September 11 attacks
After the September 11 attacks, some movies and TV shows deleted scenes or episodes set within the World Trade Center.[202][203][204][205] For example, The Simpsons episode 'The City of New York vs. Homer Simpson', which first aired in 1997, was removed from syndication after the attacks because a scene showed the World Trade Center.[206] Songs that mentioned the World Trade Center were no longer aired on radio, and the release dates of some films, such as the 2001-2002 films Sidewalks of New York, People I Know, and Spider-Man, were delayed so producers could remove scenes that included the World Trade Center.[202][201] The 2001 film Kissing Jessica Stein, which was shown at the Toronto International Film Festival the day before the attacks, had to be modified before its general public release, so the filmmakers could delete the scenes that depicted the World Trade Center.[202]
Other episodes and films mentioned the attacks directly, or depicted the World Trade Center in alternate contexts.[203] The production of some family-oriented films was also sped up due to a large demand for that genre following the attacks. Demand for horror and action films decreased, but within a short time demand returned to normal.[205] By the first anniversary of the attacks, over sixty 'memorial films' had been created.[207] Filmmakers were criticized for removing scenes related to the World Trade Center. Rita Kempley of The Washington Post said 'if we erase the towers from our art, we erase it [sic] from our memories'.[208] Author Donald Langmead compared the phenomenon to the 1949 novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, where historic mentions of events are retroactively 'rectified'.[209] Other filmmakers such as Michael Bay, who directed the 1998 film Armageddon, opposed retroactively removing references to the World Trade Center based on post-9/11 attitudes.[202]
Oliver Stone's film World Trade Center—the first movie that specifically examined the effects of the attacks on the World Trade Center, as contrasted with the effects elsewhere—was released in 2006.[209] Several years after the attacks, works such as 'The City of New York vs. Homer Simpson' were placed back in syndication. The National September 11 Museum has preserved many of the works that feature depictions of the original World Trade Center.[202]
See also
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External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to World Trade Center (1970–2001). |
- World Trade Center – Silverstein Properties
- World Trade Center (1997) - World Trade Center (2001) – Port Authority of New York & New Jersey
- World Trade Center at Curlie
- Building the Twin Towers: A Tribute – slideshow by Life magazine
- New York: A Documentary film features the construction and destruction of the World Trade Center in the seventh and final episode of the series directed by Ric Burns.
- Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS) No. NY-6369, 'World Trade Center Site', 103 photos, 21 data pages, 8 photo caption pages